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PREFACE．．．．．．．．．．．．．．V
TABLE OF CASES．．．．．．．XXVlI
PART ONE．THE FIRST AMENDMENT
ANDMASS COMMUNICATIoNS
Chapter I．The First Amendment in Per=
spective…………………………………… 1
A．Introduction…………………………………… 1
B．Background,Theories and Direction 0f the
FirSt Amendment………………………… 3
1．Background……………………………… 3
2．Theories and Tests of the First
Amendment……………… 5
a．Absolutism…………………………… 8
b．The“Clear and Present Danger"
Test………………………………… 11
c．Ad Hoc BalancingofIntereBts…… 14
d．Defmitional Balancing……………… 18
3．Present Direction of the Supreme
Court…………………………………… 19
C．The Dichotomy Between Prior RestraLint
and Subsequent Punishment 0f Expres-
8ion………………………………………… 26

Page
D．Information as Property…………………… 30
1．Conflict Between Economic IntereBts
and In_formation FlOW……………… 30
2．Copyright and the First Amendment… 3l
Chal，ter II．Defnmation and Mass C01]1-
munication……………………………… 45
A．Interests in Conflict………………………… 45
B．Common Law Defamation………………… 46
1．DeFIition and Elements……………… 46
a．The DefamatoIT Statement……… 47
b．Publication…………………………… 51
c．Identification．……… 54
d．Economic Loss……………………… 56
2．The Contrast Between Libel and S1an．
der……………………………………… 56
a．The Special Case8 0f S1ander……… 58
b．Libel Per Se and Per Quod………… 59
3．Theories of Liability…．………………61
4．Remedies．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．．． 62
a．Damages……………………………… 62
C．The Common Law Defenses………………… 66
1．Truth or‘'Justification”……………… 67
2．PrivileGS……………………………… 68
a．Absolute Privilege…………………… 68
b．Qualified Privilege………………… 70
(1)Limitations on the Scope ofthe
Privilege……………………… 72
(2)General Requirements 0f the
Privilege……………………… 74
3．Fair Comment…………………………… 75
4．IncomDlete Defenses…………………… 76

D．The New Constitutional Law of Defama-
tion…………………………………………… 81
1．New York Times C0．v．Sullivan……… 81
2．Efiects 0fthe NewYorkTimes Case… 84
3．The New York Times Progeny……… 86
4．The Basic PubIc Figure--Private Per·
son Distinction 0f Gertz v．Welch 91
5．The Broad Meaning of Gertz………… 94
6．The Public Figure Private Person
Distinction…………………………… 95
a．Narrowing 0f the Public Figure
Classification……………………… 95
b．The Effect of Time Passage on
Public Figure Status……………100
7．The Fact-Opinion Dichotomy…………101
8．cspecific for the Media Creat-
ed bv Gertz……………………………．104
9．Questions Raised by Gertz…106
10．An Attempt to“Get Around”New
York Times and It8 Reaffirmation a
Generation Later……………………108
11．N0n-Media Defendants and Matters
0f Public Concern……………………111
12．MigceUaQeous ConstitutiOnal Privi-
1eges Claimed by Journalists in Def-
amation Cases…………………………113
a．N012di8c10sure 0f the Editorial De-
cision Making Process……………113
b．Neutral Reportage…………………115
Chapter III．Privacy and The Mass Me-
dia……………………………………………119
A．Introduction……………………………………119
B．HistOry and Development of the Common
Iaw………………………………………．120

C．The Common Law Today……………………121
1．Appropriation……………………………122
a．Right 0fPublcity……………………123
b．Applicability 0f First Amendment
1’heory to Appropriation Cases…130
2．Intrusion…………………………………132
a．Common Law…………………………132
b．Federal LegislatiOil…………………136
c．Possession of Stolen Material and
Intrusion by Journalists on Pri．
vate Property………………………142
d．Applicability of First Amendment
Theory to Intrusion………………152
3．False Light………………………………152
a．Nature and Limitations……………152
b．Relationship to Defamation………156
c．Applicability 0f First Amendment
Theory to False Light Cases……156
4．Public Disclosure ofPrivate Facts……159
a．Nature and Limitations……………159
b．The Newsworthiness Privilege……160
c．Applicability of First Amelldment
Theory to Public Disclosure of
Private Facts………………………166
5．Common Characteristics of the Four
Types ofInvasion ofPrivacy………173
D．Leg~htion Designed to Protect Personal
Privacy………………………………………175
1．PrivacyActofl974……………………175
2．Driverbs Privacy Protection Act………175
3．Family Educational Rights and Priva．
eyact…………………………… 1 77

Chapter IV． Restraint of obscene EX-
pression……………………………………180
A．General Theory………………………………180
1．The DefinitiOD￡Ll Problem………………180
2．Background………………………………181
3．Modern Doctrin￡L1 Development………182
4．The LastWord on Obscenity：Mmer v．
C~!ifornia………………………………184
5．Effects of Miller．Paris Adult Theatre
and Jenkins……………………………189
6．Difficulties With the New Approach…191
7．Variable Obscenity Stand81"d8…………192
8．Chfld Pornography………………………194
a．Recent Cases Involving Child Por．
nography…………………………199
9．Ferninist Proposals for Statutory Civil
Actions to Counter Porbographic
Depictions 0fWomen…………………200
B．Important Special Areas Of Restraint 0f
Sexual Expression…………………………203
1．Mail and Customs Censorship…………203
2．Mo~on Pictures…………………………205
a．Background and Modern Doctrine．205
b．Procedural Safeguards for Filin…206
3．Dial．a-Porn………………………………209
4．Mnitary Bases and Prisods……………2lO
5．8exually Explidt Music Lyrics and
Graphic Art……………………………212
6．Nude Dandng……………………………216
C．Subsequent Criminal Sanctions……………217

Chaoter V．Restraint of The Press for
Purposes of National Security……．．221
A．The Connict……………………………………221
B．Legal Background……………………………222
C． New York Times C0．v．United States……223
D．Other Inhibitions on Publication…………230
1．Withholding PaSSlgOrts…………………．230
2．Legislative Prohibitions………………230
3．Contractual Prohibitions………………．231
4．News Blackouts…………………………．234
5．Crimin￡Ll Prosecutions and Threats
Thereof-…………………………………237
Cha．pter VI．The Ftee Press-Fair Trial
Conflict……………………………………．240
A．The Problem…………………………………240
1。Introduction………………………………240
2．A Case Study：Sheppard v．MaxweU…．241
B．Approaches to the Problem…………………．248
1．Resort t0 Judicial Procedural Devices248
2．Limiting Access of the Media to Infor．
mation About Pending Legal Mat．
te}rs………………………………………250
a．Institutional Reactions Favoring
Restrictions on News Flow to the
Media………………………………250
b．Exclusion Of Camera operators
and Equipment From the Conrt．
room and Environs………………25l
c．Sealing Arrest and Other Public
Records……………………………253
d．C10sing the Courtroom……………254
3．Prior Restraint of the News Media…255
a．Problems Engendered………………255

B．Approaches to the Problem--Continued
b．Nebraska Press Association v．
Stuart………………………………．258
5．Subsequent CriminaL Punishment 0f
the News Media………………………．263
Chapter VII．Freedom to Gather New8
and Information…………………………265
A．Introduction……………………………………265
B．The Federal Freedom 0f Information Act
(FOIA)………………………………………267
1．Historical Background…………………．267
2．Operation 0f the Original act……．267
a．In the C01】rt8…………………………267
b．At the Administrative Level………268
3．Early Amendments to FOIA…………268
4．The Electronic Freedom of Informa．
tion Act…………………………………269
5．Litigation Involving the FOIA’8 Nine
Exemptions……………………………．270
5．Assessment of FOIA……………………．291
C．Legislation Limiting Access in the Nalne 0f
Personal Privacy……………………………293
D．Open MeetingsOpen Records Legislstion 296
1．The Federal Government in the“Sun．
shine”…………………………………296
2．State Open Meetings and Open Rec．
ords Laws………………………………297
E．Media Access to Governmentally Restrict．
ed Places and Institutions………………．300
1．Access to Prisons………………………300
2．Access to Accident Sites………………302

F．Media Access to COUrts and Judicial Rec．
ords……………………………………………305
1．Access to TriaL Proceedings……………305
2．Access to Trial Proceedings in the
United States Senate…．312
3．Access to Pretrial Proceedings………313
a．Access to Grand Jury Proceedings317
b．Access t0 Jurors’Identities………319
4．Access to Judicial Documents and Dis．
coveryMaterials………………………320
5．Access to Sealed Documents…………322
6．Access t0 Videotapes．Audiotaoes or
Still Photographs……………………326
Chapter VHI．Newspersons'Privilege。
Subpoenas, Contempt Citations
and Searches and Sei~lre8…………．329
A．Subpoenas VS．Clnims 0f Privilege…………．329
1．The Contemporary Problem…………329
2．Legal Background………………………332
a．Common Law Privilege……………．332
b．Newspersons’Shield Statute8……332
c．Claims 0f Privilege Under the First
Amendment………………………333
3．The Branzburg-Pappas-Caldwell Tril．
ogy………………………………………．335
a．What the Supreme Court Decided335
b．The Legal Situation After Branz．
burg…………………………………337
(1)Civil and Criminal Cases and
Grand Jury Proceedings……337
(2)Cases Involving Non．Confiden．
tial Information………………344
(3)In Summary一…346

A．Subpoenas VS．ClaiTrts of Privilegc Con．
tinued
c．The Practical Effect of Branzburg
on Newsgatherers…………………348
(1)Confrontations With Congre8s 349
B．Newspersons’Shield Laws…………………350
1．Stare Shield Laws………………………．351
a．StatutoryAnalysi8…………………351
b．Judicial Treatment…………………．353
2．Administrative Protection for the
Newsperson：Department of Justice
Guidelines………………………………354
C．Lawsuits by NeWS Sources…………………355
D．Contempt for Unprivileged Refusal to Tes．
tify……………359
1．The Real Importance 0f the Privilege 359
2．Types of Contempt………………………359
3．The Impact of Contempt on Newsper．
sons……………………………………360
4．Alternatives t0 Contempt Citations
and Jailing of Newspersons…………361
E．The Effect on Newsgathering of Searches
and Seizures in the Newsroom…………364
1．Zurcher v．Stanford Dailv………………364
2．Federal Legislation in the Wake 0f
Zurcher…………………………………366
Chapter IX．Regulation of Commercial
S]pccch………………………………………369
A．Constitutional History………………………．369
B．The Four-Part Commercial Speech Analv．
sis 0f Central Hudson……………………373
C．Attempt8 to Ban Advertising 0f Legal
Produc~……………………………………381

D．The SpeciaL Problem 0f Profe8sional Ad．
vertising……………………………………383
1．Advertisingby Lawyers：A Case Study 384
2．The Efiect of the Lawyer Advertiging
Cases on the Other Professions……．390
E．Access ofthe Public to the Private Adver．
tising Media…………………………………391
F．Stare Statutory Regulation…………………．393
G．Federal Statutory and Administrative Reg-
ulation………………………………………一394
1．The FederaL Trade Commission………一394
a．Nature and Juris(1iction……………．394
b．Organization and Enforcement……395
c． The Feder￡Ll Trade Commission
Improvement Act 0f 1974………一398
d．Constitutional Lirnitations on the
FederaL Trade CommissiOIl'S
Power to Impose Sanctions……一399
2．The Feder暑Ll Communications Com．
mission…………………………………一40l
PART TWO．REGULATIoN oF THE
ELECTRONIC MASS MEDIA
ChapterX ReglllationofBroadcasting一403
A．The Federal CoratoRSications Commission 403
1．Scope of the Colini8sion’s Power……．406
2．StructuraL Organization 0f the Com．
mission…………………………………．410
3．Juridical Basis for Commission Regu．
1ation 0f Broadcasting………………413
B．Structural Regulation………………………419
1．Allocation of Frequencies………………419

B．Structural Regulation--Continued
a．AM Allocation………………………420
b．FM Allocation………………………424
c．Television Allocation………………425
。 d．Digital Television(DTV)……………426
2．Broadcast Licensing……………………．430
a．The Showing an Apphcant Must
Makc Basic Qualifications……432
(1)Citizenship………………………433
(2)Character………………………434
(3)Financial Qualifications………．437
(4)Technical Showing……………438
(5)Programming……………………440
b．Processing the Application…………441
c．Participation by Non．applicants in
the Processing 0f Applications…．442
(1)Participation by Other Broad．
cast Stations…………………．442
(2)Participation by the Public……443
d．C0mparative Qualifications--The
Need for Choice……………………445
(1)The Non．renewal Situation…．．446
(2)The Renewal Situation………．．449
3．Diversity of Media Owhetshiu…………452
4．The Network Rules……………………463
C．FCC Control of Broadcast Content…………467
1．Political Broadcasting…………………．468
a．“Use”…………………………………．469
b．Legally Qualified Candidates………47l
c．Exeinptions Ftom Equ￡Ll Time Re．
quirement…………………………．473
d．Necessity for Timely Demand……476

C． FCC Control of Broadcast Content-Con．
finu~l
e．Reasonable Access (Section
312(a)(7))…………………………477
f_Lowest Unit Charge…………………482
g．Censorship……………………………487
h．The“Zapple Doctrine”……………490
2．The“Fairness Doctrine”………………．491
a．Political Editorializing………………494
b．Personal Attack Rule………………494
3．Obscenity，and Indecency………………497
4．Children'8 Programming………………．502
5．Lotteries…………………………………507
6．Contests…………………………………510
7．Sponsorship Identification Rules：
"Anti-payola”and‘'Anti-plugola”
Requirements…………………………51l
8．PubHc Broadcasting……………………．513
Chapter XI．Cable and New Technolo．
gie8…………………………………………519
A．Television by Cable…………………………．519
1-Jurisdiction………………………………．521
a．History………………………………521
b．The Cable Communications P0licv
Act 0f 1984…………………………525
c． The Cable Television Consumer
Protection and C0mpetition Act
of 1992．．．．526
2．Cable System Ownership………………．526
a．Franchising…………………………．527
b．Concentration Rules………………530
c．Rate Regulation………………………533
3．Copyright Problems……………………．．537

A Television by Cable--Continued
a．The Compulsory License For Re．
，transmission 0f Broadcast Sig-
nals…………………………………．538
b．Retransmission Consent……………539
4．Signal Carriage Rules…………………541
a．The“Must-Carry~’Rules…………542
b．The“May-Carry”Rules……………555
5．Content Regulation……………………557
B．Multipoint Distribution Service(MDS)……56l
C．Satellite Master Antenna Television
(SMATV)．．．．564
D．Direct Broadcast Satellites(DBS)…………．565
E．Home Satellite Dishes(TVRO)……………569
F．Electromc Publishing(Teletext)……………572
ChapterII．Internet LaW…………………．574
A Introduction……………………………………574
B．Indecency………………………………………．576
C．SafetyandViolence…………………………581
D．Defamation……………………………………582
E．Privacy…………………………………………．585
F．Encryption……………………………………589
G．Access and Spain………………………………591
H．Copyright＆Trademark……………………593
I．Domain Names………………………………595
J．Open ACCESS……………………………………599
K Convergence and The Future………………．600
index…………………………………………603